OBJECTIVES: To investigate the need for hospital clinical ethics committees by studying the frequency with which ethical dilemmas arose, the perceived adequacy of the process of their resolution, and the teaching and training of staff in medical ethics. DESIGN: Interviews with individuals and three multidisciplinary teams; questionnaire to randomly selected individuals. SETTING: Two major London children's hospitals. RESULTS: Ethical dilemmas arose frequently but were resolved in a relatively unstructured fashion. Ethical concerns included: the validity of consent for investigations and treatment; (...) lack of children's involvement in consent; initiation of heroic or futile treatments; resource allocation. Staff expressed the need for a forum which would provide consultation on ethical issues, develop guidelines for good ethical practice, undertake teaching and training, and provide ethical reflection outside the acute clinical setting. CONCLUSION: Multidisciplinary, accountable and audited clinical ethics committees with predominantly advisory, practice development and educational roles could provide a valuable contribution to UK clinical practice and perhaps in other countries that have not developed hospital clinical ethics committees. (shrink)

The biological sciences study (bio)complex living systems. Research directed at the mechanistic explanation of the "live" state truly requires a pluralist research program, i.e. BioComplexity research. The program should apply multiple intra-level and inter-level theories and methodologies. We substantiate this thesis with analysis of BioComplexity: metabolic and modular control analysis of metabolic pathways, emergence of oscillations, and the analysis of the functioning of glycolysis.

A new approach to landscape ecology involves the application of the eco-field hypothesis and the General Theory of Resources. In this study, we describe the putative eco-field of bark beetles as a spatial configuration with a specific meaning-carrier for every organism-resource interaction. Bark beetles are insects with key roles in matter and energy cycles in coniferous forests, which cause significant changes to forestry landscapes when outbreaks occur. Bark beetles are guided towards host trees by the recognition of semiotic signals using (...) a specific eco-field. These signals mainly comprise a group of scents, which are called the odourtope. Their interactions with other organisms occur by sharing relevant information from the eco-field networks in the forest ecosystem. The eco-field networks modulate the expansion of the realized semiotic niche of the bark beetle towards the potential semiotic niche. Moreover, the niche construction process can be initiated by interchanging signals among species living in the same place, where these signals allow the exploitation of the required resources. If different organisms are interdependent on signals in eco-field networks, then this process may result in the establishment of mutualistic relationships. This is an example of how evolutionary processes are initiated by the recognition of signals in a network of eco-fields. (shrink)

In this article, we aim to analyse whether a systematic meth- od for reasoning with evidence in legal cases – the hybrid theory of stories and arguments – can be ap- plied to a novel legal domain, name- ly European asylum law. This analy- sis serves as a case study for testing the applicability of the hybrid theory outside of the context of criminal law. Furthermore, the analysis will provide insights on how the hybrid theory can be used to improve (...) the normative framework for evidence assessment in asylum cases. (shrink)

First published in 2002. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

1. The most important aspect of touch is its relation to time and space, a relation which is established by the movement of touching itself. Referring to the ideas of E. Straus, the distinction between touching and being touched is elaborated in light of experiments done by us with animals. 2. Touching is: being in one's own limits and at the same time going beyond these limits, a situation in which the touched object is felt at the same time as (...) a "Gegenstand" and as "Mit-seiend." "Pour le tactile, c'est l'être à deux qui se place au premier rang" . The awareness of being by the sense of touch is particularly poignant in the case of touching oneself, which is an exceptional unity of the active and the passive state of mind. 3. The tactile recognition of form also presents a dialectic of activity and passivity, a dialectic which takes place in the form of a development which conquers time, and this after a scheme produced during the act of grasping itself. We refer to the studies of V. von Weizsäcker on the "Gestaltkreis." We must also remember the basic restlessness of the hand, which becomes lasting in the play of the hand with an object. 4. The hand can hold an object. In doing so a schematic tactile image is given, an image which functions as a hypothesis or as an organizing principle of the proleptic development of further tactile exploration. The phenomenological analysis of touch with the hand appears as a prefiguration of thought by synthetic judgments. Thus, it is true, as Herder remarked, and as Gold-stein and Merleau-Ponty confirmed, that perception by man and spiritual existence are identical. 5. Referring to the research of Révèsz and Palagyi, the real nature of the tactile world is anlyzed. Tactile exploration is done according to a real development, during which take place anticipatory and retrospective determinations which assure the continuity of the event and its meaning. Tactile perception permits description of the continuous unity of the discontinuous phases which we can state objectively "as if" expectation and memory, preliminary judgments and their checking, conceptual fixations and corrections had been put to work. 6. Important is the affective and emotional aspect of tactile impressions and their connection with inter-human relationships. 7. By touch, man establishes in a "feeling" way a personal relationship with the matter of things, which is hidden to the distance senses. This participation has a double aspect. It is like the birth of a "mood," of a "Befindlichkeit," but at the same time it is the active point of departure of a "feeling," of an "understanding," of an "inner grasp," of a being moved, of a being struck by the touched object which is then in our presence as a real "quale," as a material object, as a being in itself. We remember the proper nature of the caress, by which the "being together" of the caressed object complements that of the active caresser. The usual concepts by means of which, in practical and gnostic life, the most important tactile qualities are indicated intend to refer us to the characteristics of the things which take up space in the geometric world and in objectively measurable space, and on which is founded our natural orientation. We remember von Hornborstel's research on the intermodal characteristics of tactile impressions. These show us how a "knowledge" which accompanies perception can change an impression of feeling. The affective relationship, determined by a shaded "knowledge" and by a system of values, changes tangible reality, the substantiality of the body, of the "flesh." This affective change of matter, this "phenomenal transsubstantiation," easily becomes a reality in connection with objects of which we know that they belong or did belong to someone. The meaning which a thing has changes the matter of the object, an object which precisely by the touch is present "in the flesh." This is illustrated more precisely by the phenomena of fetishism, and by simple experiences of daily life. If we look for an anthropological point of view from which touch, of which the hand realizes the point of view will have to be attempted starting from the unimaginable certitude that the ontological unity of nature and spirit is in man the reality of a possible participation, a participation which, in our existence, is only indicated. The "restlessness" of the hand, never fulfilled and always searching, which we noted, is the human token of our concrete existence. Thus touch shows us what Valery remarked about the mind: "The mind is at the mercy of the body, as the blind are at the mercy of the seeing.". (shrink)

1. Digteren og kunstkritikeren.--2. Filosoffen og teologen.--3. Prædikanten, kirkestormeren og autobiografen.--4. Indledninger og tekstforklaringer.

1. L'aspect le plus important du toucher est sa relation au temps et à l'étendue, relation constituée par le mouvement même du toucher. En référence aux conceptions de E. Straus, on expose la distinction entre le toucher et l'être-touché à la lumière d'expériences faites par nous avec des animaux. 2. Le toucher est un être-dans-les-limites-propres et en même temps un franchissement de ces limites, être par lequel l'objet touché est éprouvé à la fois comme „Gegenstand” et comme „Mitseiend”. „Pour le (...) tactile, c'est l'être à deux qui se place au premier rang.” L'affirmation de l'être par le sens du toucher est saisissante dans le cas du se-touchersoi-même, qui est une union exceptionnelle d'activité et de passivité. 3. La reconnaissance tactile de la forme présente elle aussi une dialectique d'activité et de passivité, dialectique qui procède sous la forme d'un développement surmontant le temps, et cela à partir d'un schéma produit dans l'acte même de préhension. On renvoie aux études de V. von Weizsäcker sur le „Gestaltkreis”. Il faut se rappeler aussi l'inquiétude primaire de la main, qui dans le jeu de la main avec un objet devient perdurante. 4. La main peut enserrer un objet. En ce faisant une image schématique tactile est donnée, image qui fonctionne comme hypothèse ou comme principe organisateur du développement prolèptique de l'exploration tactile ultérieure. L'analyse phénoménologique du toucher avec la main se révèle comme une préfiguration de la pensée par jugements synthétiques. Il est donc vrai, comme le remarquait Herder et comme le confirmaient Goldstein et Merleau-Ponty, que la perception telle que l'homme l'effectue et l'existence spirituelle sont identiques. 5. En se référant aux recherches de Révèsz et de Palagyi, on analyse le caractère propre du monde tactil. L'exploration tactile procède selon un véritable développement, donnant lieu à des déterminations anticipatives et rétrospectives qui assurent la continuité de l'événement et de son sens. La perception tactile permet de décrire l'unité continue des phases discontinues objectivement constatables, „comme si” attente et souvenir, jugements provisoires et vérification, fixations conceptuelles et corrections étaient mises en œuvre. 6. Important est l'aspect affectif et émotif des impressions tactiles et leur rapport aux relations interhumaines. 7. Par le toucher l'homme se trouve d'une manière „sensible” en relation personnelle avec cette matérialité des choses qui demeure cachée aux sens-à-distance. Cette participation a un double aspect. Elle est comme le surgissement d'un „état d'âme”, une '‚Befindlichkeit”, mais en même temps elle est le point de départ actif d'un sentir, d'un „comprendre”, d'un „saisir par le dedans”, d'un être-ému, d'un être-frappé par l'objet touché qui se rend présent comme un „quale” propre, comme une matière, comme un être-en-soi. On rappelle le caractère propre du caresser, par lequel l'„être à deux” de l'objet caressé devient complémentaire avec celui du caressant actif. Les concepts usuels par le moyen desquels, dans la vie pratiquement et gnostiquement vécue, sont indiquées les qualités tactiles les plus importantes, ont comme but de nous référer aux propriétés des choses qui prennent place dans le monde géométrique et dans l'espace objectivement mesurable et qui fondent notre orientation naturelle. On rappelle les recherches de von Homborstel au sujet des propriétés internodales des impressions tactiles. Celles-ci nous montrent comment un „savoir” qui accompagne ta perception peut changer une impression sensible. La relation affective, déterminée par un „savoir” nuancé et par un système de valeurs, change la réalité tangible, la substantialité du corps, de la „chair”. Ce changement affectif de la matière, cette „transsubstantiation phénoménale” peut se réaliser facilement par rapport à des objets dont nous savons qu'ils appartiennent ou ont appartenu à quelqu'un. La signification qu'a une chose change la matière de l'objet, objet qui, précisément par le toucher, se rend présent „en chair et en os”. On illustre ceci avec plus de précision grâce aux phénomènes du fétichisme et grâce à de simples expériences de la vie courante. Si nous cherchons un point de vue anthropologique à partir duquel le toucher, dont la main réalise les possibilités, peut prendre un sens, une approche d'un tel point de vue devra s'effectuer à partir de la certitude non-représentable que l'unité ontique de la nature et de l'esprit est dans l'homme la réalité d'une participation possible, participation qui, dans notre existence, n'est qu'indiquée. L'„inquiétude” de la main jamais remplie et toujours chercheuse que nous avons remarquée, est le signe humain de notre existence concrète. Ainsi le toucher nous montre ce que Valéry remarquait à propos de l'esprit : „L'esprit est à la merci du corps, comme les aveugles sont à la merci des voyants.”. (shrink)

This report describes the rationale, approaches, organization, and resource development leading to a large-scale deletion bin map of the hexaploid wheat genome. Accompanying reports in this issue detail results from chromosome bin-mapping of expressed sequence tags representing genes onto the seven homoeologous chromosome groups and a global analysis of the entire mapped wheat EST data set. Among the resources developed were the first extensive public wheat EST collection. Described are protocols for sequencing, sequence processing, EST nomenclature, and the assembly of (...) ESTs into contigs. These contigs plus singletons were used for selection of distinct sequence motif unigenes. Selected ESTs were rearrayed, validated by 5′ and 3′ sequencing, and amplified for probing a series of wheat aneuploid and deletion stocks. Images and data for all Southern hybridizations were deposited in databases and were used by the coordinators for each of the seven homoeologous chromosome groups to validate the mapping results. Results from this project have established the foundation for future developments in wheat genomics. (shrink)

By 1910 the Cambridge University physiology department had become the kernel of British physiology. Between 1909 and 1914 an astonishing number of young and talented scientists passed through the laboratory. The University College department was also a stimulating place of study under the dynamic leadership of Ernest Starling.I have argued that the reasons for this metropolitan axis within British physiology lie with the social structure of late-Victorian and Edwardian higher education. Cambridge, Oxford, and University College London were national institutions attracting (...) students from all over England and Wales. In contrast, the provincial colleges drew their clientele from relatively narrow geographic radii. Generally, also, these institutions were regarded as socially inferior to the longer-established universities.A brief survey of the biographies of some British physiologists demonstrates how physiology, as an occupation, became, over the later decades of the century, socially elite. The scientists who achieved full-time posts in the 1870s generally came from somewhat marginal backgrounds. Foster, like his mentors T. H. Huxley and William Sharpey, came from a non-conformist family. Edward Schäfer was also a dissenter and, like Foster, began his professional career as a general practitioner.Physiologists of the succeeding generation, however, came from wealthy families with established intellectual traditions. John Scott Haldane, nephew of John Burdon Sanderson, was the brother of the politician R. B. Haldane and uncle of the historian A. R. B. Haldane.71 Joseph Barcroft was one of the most affluent of all physiologists.72 His family's wealth derived from linen manufacturing. He attended the Ley's School Cambridge, where his schoolmates included Henry Dale, later Director of the National Institute for Medical Research; F. A. Bainbridge, who eventually became Professor of Physiology at St. Bartholomew's Hospital; and the Cambridge historian J. H. Clapham. A. V. Hill, Professor of Physiology at Manchester and, subsequently, London, married Margaret Keynes, sister of John Maynard Keynes and niece of Sir Walter Langdon Brown, Professor of Physic at Cambridge. Margaret Keynes's younger brother, the surgeon Sir Geoffrey Keynes, married a granddaughter of Charles Darwin; their son Richard Keynes also became a physiologist at Cambridge.These families were part of a new class emerging during the late Victorian period, descendants of the great reforming radicals of the 1830s, who had begun to achieve power through positions in the universities, the professions, and the civil service. Their social prestige rested upon their intellectual expertise. Physiology was an appealing research discipline to these groups because of its clear dissociation from industry and commerce. And because physiology's “practical” face was medicine, its acceptability was reinforced by professional ties.The nature of the Physiological Society confirms this image of physiology as an elite science. By the turn of the century the Society had taken on some of the characteristics of a dining club. The scientific meetings were generally followed by dinner: if the Society met at Oxford, they were entertained at Burdon Sanderson's college, Magdalen.73 Through a “black ball” system, unwanted candidates could be excluded. In 1912, when the question of admitting foreigners was discussed, E. H. Starling wrote to Edward Schäfer: “the Society has very much in it the nature of a club, and a certain amount of personal knowledge of the candidate is always desirable.”74.The developing institutional structure of physiology in late Victorian Britain indicates, therefore, that we must look beyond the achievements of individuals and departments to understand why physiology flourished. The discipline became part of a new social order in which the professional middle classes assumed increasing power. These groups valued intellectual skill, especially in the pure scienes, as forces both for self-advancement and for progress within society. (shrink)